NOTES: Etruscan & Roman Art 6
Where in the world are we?
End of the Bronze Age (about 1000 BCE) Villanovans occupied northern and westering regions of Italy. The central region was home to people who spoke what is closest to Latin today.
Beginning in the 8th century people, the Greeks, established colonies here.
During the 7th century people known as the Etruscans (related to Villanovans) gained control of the north and much of central Italy as it's known today.
Etruscans reached their height of power in the 6th century and expanded throughout Italy.
Etruscan wealth came from fertile soil and abundance of metal ore
They were farmers, metal workers, sailors and merchants and traded with the Greeks
The Etruscan artists drew inspiration from the Greeks and Near Eastern art
Etruscans made extraordinary items for domestic use
Cistae
Cylinder containers used by women in the home for toiletry articles
Visual expression
Humans are naturally posed and even individualized, having visual connection to Greek art
Visual imagery displays their, the Etruscans, interest in Greek myths
Architecture and city planning
Etruscans established patterns of building that would be adopted by Romans later
Cities were laid out on grid patterns (similar to Egypt and Greece)
Cities were divided into quarters with the town's business district centralized in the center of the intersection
We know about their domestic living quarters because of the house shaped funerary urns
Houses were designed around a central courtyard or atrium, open to the sky, with a cistern or pool fed by rainwater
Evidence of first spotting The Roman Arch that connects two towers and Roman Vaulting with circular panels or roundels
Etruscan Temples
Etruscans incorporated Greek deities and heroes into their pantheon (a building where the illustrious dead of a nation are buried and/or honored).
Temple of Minerva
Archaeological evidence for the Temple of Minerva
p.160
The Archaic smile
Apollo, terra cotta figure resembles the kouroi from Ancient Greece. Here, however, the body is covered by a draped robe, the body advances forward, overall has a sense of energy in purposeful movement.
This type of natural movement is found in Etruscan paintings as well.
Temple of Minerva further information
The temples were built with mud-brick walls, wood and sometimes quarried volcanic rock called tufo
Tuscan order were the Etruscan variation of the Doric column, but was unfitted and had a simple base.
The Etruscans built rectangular temples (like the Greeks) but the difference was they imbedded them into an urban setting.
Temples were embellished with painting and terra-cotta sculpture.
Temple roofs served as a base for large statue groups (instead of pediments, as was the method of the Greeks)
A temple's ridgepole is the horizontal beam at the peak of the roof often decorated with figures
Honoring their dead
Like the Egyptians, Etruscans had concealed tombs as homes for the dead.
Tomb paintings illustrate with a tangible world in the afterlife, in their vivid scenes of playing, feasting, dancing, hunting, etc. in fresco
Some tombs were carved out of the area rock to resemble rooms in a house with couches carved from stone while other areas were plastered and painted (fresco).
Developed a new medium called stucco = slow drying plaster that can be molded and carved.
The Etruscans made their "homes" for the dead look as natural and believable as possible, with cats, dishes of food sitting on painted tables, etc.
Their tombs were often of the couple, laying on a couch or laying in a bed in natural embrace and exchanged love.
WORKS in BRONZE p. 164 - 213
** Student notes:
Bring in one idea gleaned from our text p.164 - 213 you have found of particular interest to share with our class.
Copy your own notes from your reading of p.164 - 213 and hand in prior to the beginning of class.
p. 166
THE ROMANS
While Etruscans were inhabiting Italy, the Latin-speaking that settled around Rome were gaining power. Etruscan Kings ruled them but in 509 BCE the Romans overthrew them and formed the Republic centered in Rome, absorbing Etruscans into the Republic by the end of the 3rd century BCE.
2nd century CE the Roman Empire reached Euphrates River to Asia to Scotland.
Euphrates River, located in the Middle East, reaching 1740 miles, the longest river in the SW Asia. Those who were conquered by the Romans assimilated to their ways throughout culture including political, economical and cultural structures.
The Roman Republic would last some 450 years!
The Romans assimilated to the Greeks through adoption of their myths, gods and religious beliefs and practices. While worshipping gods they also paid honor to past rulers. Some Romans adopted the "mystery religions" of the people they conquered: Worship of Isis and Osiris from Egypt, Cybele (The Great Mother) from Anatolia, the hero-god Mithras from Persia.
The single, all-powerful God of Judaism and Christianity from Palestine challenged the Roman spiritual establishment.
p. 167
During the stable form of government, by 275 BCE Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula.
146 BCE Rome had defeated its greatest rival, Carthage on the North coast of Africa.
2nd century BCE Romans took Macedonia and Greek.
Egypt remained independent until Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
During the Republic, art was rooted in its Etruscan heritage and of course Greece.
PORTRAIT SCULPTURE
Sculptors of the Republican period were inspired by creating lifelike images based on observation of their subjects.
They also completed death masks to honor their deceased ancestors. The NEW Roman idealization was inspired to show advanced years of the sitter and "distinguishing aspects of individual likenesses," for this appearance embodies wisdom and timely life experience. Remained to celebrate Hellenistic art from the Greeks, but adding to it an individualization of the human being.
The Denarius of Julius Caesar
44 BCE Julius Caesar used and widely circulated coin bearing his profile facing right and looking "ahead."
Addition of text conceptually galvanized the propaganda values of the ruler. Roman rulers adopted this practice and coins continued to be minted in this way.
The inscription on the coin "Caesar, dictator forever"
ROMAN TEMPLES p. 171
Architecture reflected both Etruscan and Greek practices.
The Romans build urban temples in commercial areas, thus embedding worship as part of everyday life.
Rectangular cella and a front porch, inviting flight of stairs.
By 1 century BCE, nearly 1,000,000 people lived in Rome and formed the capital that had great commercial and political power, while the Republic grew overseas.
Republican Rome was a large city-state that had a Senate.
However, as the Empire grew larger and larger, government began to shift to competing senators and military commanders, thus the Republic began to weaken with fewer and fewer leaders, and was finally ruled by one man, an emperor, rather than a Senate.
The Early Roman Empire 27 BCE - 96 CE (AD) p.171
Octavian was the first emperor of the Rome in 63 BCE at the age of 19. His great-uncle, Julius Caesar adopted him at 18 after recognizing his nephew's political/militant mind.
In 44 BCE Julius Caesar refused the Senate's offer of the imperial crown and was murdered by a group of conspirators.
Octavian moved into his place and became a brilliant general, politicians, statesman and public relations genius.
By 27 BCE the Senate referred to Octavian as "Augustus" which means: one who is exalted or sacred.
Following his appointment "Augustus" with the help of his wife Livia let the Empire for 45 years!
Rome was ruled efficiently and the country was in a period of stability, domestic peace and economic stability known as Pax Romana ("Roman Peace") which lasted beyond Augustus for another 150 years to 180 CE.
VIDEO: Augustus of Primaporta early 1st c. CE
Octavia: Augustus was given the title "Pontifex Maximus" (at 12 BCE) = High Priest, becoming the Empire's highest religious official as a political leader.
Augustus was a careful planner, inspired leader, had great administrative skill which allowed him to conquering and maintain an enormous empire.
Our own system of law, our governmental and administrative structures, our civil engineering and architecture reflect the contributions of Augustus.
Augustus built widely making city life comfortable and attractive for its citizens. Having centralized legal and administrative buildings = forums and basilicas, recreational facilities (stadiums), temples, theatre, markets, public baths, middle class housing and even entire new towns outside of Rome. They built roadways and bridges, some of the Roman bridges are still in use today! They also created lead pipe plumbing for urban dwellers which was an enormous accomplishment then! Just think about it...
p. 172
Art in the Age of Augustus
New Roman form of idealism that was grounded in an individualized appearance of the everyday, with a revival of Greek Classical ideals : adding mythological imagery, historical events. The sculptures, in particular narrated completed stories of the Roman Empire's psyche.
The Romans enriched portraiture (official figures and private folks), recorded contemporary historical events in the form of public monuments. Sculptural forms were rich in propagandistic attitudes to the Empire and its leaders to express their authority and how they want to be seen by their audience posthumously. Art forms seemed to be a synthesis of The Classical style: combining Greek's Golden Age with the historical references and identifiable figures of Augustus and the empire.
Ara Pacis Augustes (Altar of Augustan Peace)
Rome 13BCE - 9 CE
Is a an architectural monument that celebrates the Roman rule in Gaul and Hispanic following three years of war.
It is an enclosure surrounding an open air alter that looks like a Greek temple in some respects.
VIDEO: Ara Pacis Augustae
Reliefs of political propaganda carved in marble unite religion with politics, show portraiture and allegory of mythical history of Rome. The portraits are of Augustus' imperial family. The monument unifies the public life of the Empire with the private.
This altar embodies the Roman ideology of peace and imperial rule of the family of Augustus, with his successors shown, implying that stability of the empire, peace and prosperity will continue.
Augustus dies in 14 CE and Roman Senate is succeeded by his stepson, Tiberius (ruled 14 - 37 CE)
Process of making a cameo.
Onyx or sea shell, other semi precious stones.
VIDEO: Carving a Cameo: BAD SOUND!
p. 176
Roman Cities and Home
Romans loved to have contact with the natural world.
The establishment of the middle class enjoyed their courtyards and gardens. The wealthy had rural estates, the Roman emperors had country villas.
Wealthy Romans commissioned artists to paint landscapes on the interior walls - frescoes.
Cities were planned and built on a grid structure, like the Etruscans.
Pompeii was a thriving center of 10,000 - 20,000 inhabitants.
In 79 CE Mount Vesuvius erupted burying the city under more than 20' of ash, preserving it until the beginning of the 18th century when excavation began by archeologists.
Wealthy city dwellers had their homes here with enclosed gardens and often fasted shops on the street. They emphasized the interior more than the exterior of their domestic life.
People entered the home off the street and stepped into an atrium that had an impluvium (a pool with running water and/or rainwater). Off the atrium was the office for the household called the tablinum, where the head of the household. Portrait busts may be found in these two areas.
Private rooms; dining, sitting rooms and bedrooms (cubical), servant areas were arranged around the atrium. The peristyle or courtyard was often turned into an outdoor living room with fountains and gardens.
p.179
Wall painting in Pompeii
Interior walls brought the outside in, in a controlled and idealized way. Some artists used mosaic (broken pieces of small glass and ceramic tile forming patterns and images).
Pigment was added to water-based solution of lime and soap, sometimes with a little bees' wax. Thus, allowing for shine to be established from the walls once dried and buffed with a soft cloth.
Romans delighted in their close observation of the natural world, but as well as their knowledge and life of mythology.
The walls of Pompeii show this exquisitely.
p. 183
Expanding Illusionary Space
Use of intuitive perspective = artists who have a general impression of real space beyond the wall. They were highly painted in the interior walls of Pompeii as murals.
The beginnings of linear perspective happen here with two point perspective - walls of the garden around the tree.
Villas at Primaporta illustrate on the walls a sense of deep space through murals.
VIDEO: Painted Garden Vista, Villa of Livia at Primaporta
Atmospheric perspective another spatial illusionary tool, where the artist depicts deep space as being less in focus and detail than the foreground.
p. 183
Roman Realism in Still Life and Portraiture details
Genre scenes - scenes depicting everyday activities and still life
Double portrait of husband and wife from Pompeii 1st c. CE
The couple look out at us into the room, instead of a scene beyond the architectural wall.
Pigment with bees' wax on wall
Woman holds a stylus and man holds a roll of writing, both are literate. Style of painting depicts amazing details, for instance look at the high light on the nose and shadowing.
p. 185
The ARCH OF TITUS (above)
when Domitian assumed the throne in 81 CE, he commissioned a triumphal arch way to honor the capture of Jerusalem in 70 CE by his brother, Titus.
It is a free-standing gateway, 50 feet tall that served as a base for a now lost bronze statue of the Titus in four-horse chariots. Made of concrete and marble.
Wowza! Now that's enormous!!
Reliefs depict procession in Rome, the capture of the Temple of Jerusalem and all the treasures that were carried off!
AMPHITEATER p. 186
Roman were huge sports fans. Flavian emperors catered to their taste by building wonderful facilities. The Flavain Amphitheater is Rome's greatest arena that began construction in 70 CE completed by Titus in 80 CE.
Vaulting - Romans became experts in devising methods of covering open spaces.
Barrel vault, constructed like the Roman Arch. It is a series of arches that are connected.
Groin Arch - when two archways intersect. Weight and outward thrust are concentrated on the four corner piers. Only the piers require buttressing for extra support.
Dome - perfected by the Romans. The rim of the dome is supported on a circular wall (the Pantheon for instance) and sometimes a circular opening at the top for emission of light and air. This opening is called the oculus (eye).
End of the Bronze Age (about 1000 BCE) Villanovans occupied northern and westering regions of Italy. The central region was home to people who spoke what is closest to Latin today.
Beginning in the 8th century people, the Greeks, established colonies here.
During the 7th century people known as the Etruscans (related to Villanovans) gained control of the north and much of central Italy as it's known today.
Etruscans reached their height of power in the 6th century and expanded throughout Italy.
Etruscan wealth came from fertile soil and abundance of metal ore
They were farmers, metal workers, sailors and merchants and traded with the Greeks
The Etruscan artists drew inspiration from the Greeks and Near Eastern art
Etruscans made extraordinary items for domestic use
Ficoroni Cista 4th c. BCE bronze
Cistae
Cylinder containers used by women in the home for toiletry articles
Visual expression
Humans are naturally posed and even individualized, having visual connection to Greek art
Visual imagery displays their, the Etruscans, interest in Greek myths
Architecture and city planning
Etruscans established patterns of building that would be adopted by Romans later
Cities were laid out on grid patterns (similar to Egypt and Greece)
Cities were divided into quarters with the town's business district centralized in the center of the intersection
We know about their domestic living quarters because of the house shaped funerary urns
Houses were designed around a central courtyard or atrium, open to the sky, with a cistern or pool fed by rainwater
Evidence of first spotting The Roman Arch that connects two towers and Roman Vaulting with circular panels or roundels
Etruscan Temples
Etruscans incorporated Greek deities and heroes into their pantheon (a building where the illustrious dead of a nation are buried and/or honored).
Temple of Minerva
" The archaeological evidence that does remain from many Etruscan temples largely confirms Vitruvius’s description. One of the best explored and known of these is the Portonaccio Temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva (Roman=Minerva/Greek=Athena) at the city of Veii about 18 km north of Rome. The tufa-block foundations of the Portonaccio temple still remain and their nearly square footprint reflects Vitruvius’s description of a floor plan with proportions that are 5:6, just a bit deeper than wide.
The temple is also roughly divided into two parts—a deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns and a back portion divided into three separate rooms. Known as a triple cella, this three room configuration seems to reflect a divine triad associated with the temple, perhaps Menrva as well as Tinia (Jupiter/Zeus) and Uni (Juno/Hera).
In addition to their internal organization and materials, what also made Etruscan temples noticeably distinct from Greek ones was a high podium and frontal entrance. Approaching the Parthenon with its low rising stepped entrance and encircling forest of columns would have been a very different experience from approaching an Etruscan temple high off the ground with a single, defined entrance." RE: Smart History.com
Video: Temple of Veii > Temple of Minerva
Video: Temple of Veii > Temple of Minerva
 |
| Master Sculptor Vulca (?), Apollo From the Temple of Minerva at Veii Terra cotta (hollow) c. 510 - 500 BCE |
 |
| Comparative: Boy of Kouros, Ancient Greece Stiff, nude, rather geometric c. 600 - 590 BCE |
The Archaic smile
Apollo, terra cotta figure resembles the kouroi from Ancient Greece. Here, however, the body is covered by a draped robe, the body advances forward, overall has a sense of energy in purposeful movement.
This type of natural movement is found in Etruscan paintings as well.
Temple of Minerva further information
The temples were built with mud-brick walls, wood and sometimes quarried volcanic rock called tufo
Tuscan order were the Etruscan variation of the Doric column, but was unfitted and had a simple base.
The Etruscans built rectangular temples (like the Greeks) but the difference was they imbedded them into an urban setting.
Temples were embellished with painting and terra-cotta sculpture.
Temple roofs served as a base for large statue groups (instead of pediments, as was the method of the Greeks)
A temple's ridgepole is the horizontal beam at the peak of the roof often decorated with figures
 |
| Burial Chamber, tomb of the Reliefs Cerveteri, Italy c. 300 BCE |
Honoring their dead
Like the Egyptians, Etruscans had concealed tombs as homes for the dead.
Tomb paintings illustrate with a tangible world in the afterlife, in their vivid scenes of playing, feasting, dancing, hunting, etc. in fresco
 |
| Dancers and Diners Tomb of the Triclinium, c. 480 - 470 BCE |
Some tombs were carved out of the area rock to resemble rooms in a house with couches carved from stone while other areas were plastered and painted (fresco).
Developed a new medium called stucco = slow drying plaster that can be molded and carved.
The Etruscans made their "homes" for the dead look as natural and believable as possible, with cats, dishes of food sitting on painted tables, etc.
Their tombs were often of the couple, laying on a couch or laying in a bed in natural embrace and exchanged love.
 |
| Reclining Couple on a sarcophagus from Cerveteri, c. 520 BCE Terra cotta |
 |
| Carved marble sarcophagus lid of an embracing couple |
** Student notes:
Bring in one idea gleaned from our text p.164 - 213 you have found of particular interest to share with our class.
Copy your own notes from your reading of p.164 - 213 and hand in prior to the beginning of class.
p. 166
THE ROMANS
While Etruscans were inhabiting Italy, the Latin-speaking that settled around Rome were gaining power. Etruscan Kings ruled them but in 509 BCE the Romans overthrew them and formed the Republic centered in Rome, absorbing Etruscans into the Republic by the end of the 3rd century BCE.
2nd century CE the Roman Empire reached Euphrates River to Asia to Scotland.
Euphrates River, located in the Middle East, reaching 1740 miles, the longest river in the SW Asia. Those who were conquered by the Romans assimilated to their ways throughout culture including political, economical and cultural structures.
The Roman Republic would last some 450 years!
The Romans assimilated to the Greeks through adoption of their myths, gods and religious beliefs and practices. While worshipping gods they also paid honor to past rulers. Some Romans adopted the "mystery religions" of the people they conquered: Worship of Isis and Osiris from Egypt, Cybele (The Great Mother) from Anatolia, the hero-god Mithras from Persia.
The single, all-powerful God of Judaism and Christianity from Palestine challenged the Roman spiritual establishment.
p. 167
During the stable form of government, by 275 BCE Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula.
146 BCE Rome had defeated its greatest rival, Carthage on the North coast of Africa.
2nd century BCE Romans took Macedonia and Greek.
Egypt remained independent until Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
During the Republic, art was rooted in its Etruscan heritage and of course Greece.
 |
| Portrait Head of an Elder from Scoppito 1st c. BCE Marbe 11" high |
PORTRAIT SCULPTURE
Sculptors of the Republican period were inspired by creating lifelike images based on observation of their subjects.
They also completed death masks to honor their deceased ancestors. The NEW Roman idealization was inspired to show advanced years of the sitter and "distinguishing aspects of individual likenesses," for this appearance embodies wisdom and timely life experience. Remained to celebrate Hellenistic art from the Greeks, but adding to it an individualization of the human being.
 |
| Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar 44 BCE silver 3/4" in diameter |
44 BCE Julius Caesar used and widely circulated coin bearing his profile facing right and looking "ahead."
Addition of text conceptually galvanized the propaganda values of the ruler. Roman rulers adopted this practice and coins continued to be minted in this way.
The inscription on the coin "Caesar, dictator forever"
ROMAN TEMPLES p. 171
Architecture reflected both Etruscan and Greek practices.
The Romans build urban temples in commercial areas, thus embedding worship as part of everyday life.
Rectangular cella and a front porch, inviting flight of stairs.
By 1 century BCE, nearly 1,000,000 people lived in Rome and formed the capital that had great commercial and political power, while the Republic grew overseas.
Republican Rome was a large city-state that had a Senate.
However, as the Empire grew larger and larger, government began to shift to competing senators and military commanders, thus the Republic began to weaken with fewer and fewer leaders, and was finally ruled by one man, an emperor, rather than a Senate.
 |
| Augustus of Primaporta Early 1st century CE Perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of c. 20 BCE Made of marble, originally painted |
The Early Roman Empire 27 BCE - 96 CE (AD) p.171
Octavian was the first emperor of the Rome in 63 BCE at the age of 19. His great-uncle, Julius Caesar adopted him at 18 after recognizing his nephew's political/militant mind.
In 44 BCE Julius Caesar refused the Senate's offer of the imperial crown and was murdered by a group of conspirators.
Octavian moved into his place and became a brilliant general, politicians, statesman and public relations genius.
By 27 BCE the Senate referred to Octavian as "Augustus" which means: one who is exalted or sacred.
Following his appointment "Augustus" with the help of his wife Livia let the Empire for 45 years!
Rome was ruled efficiently and the country was in a period of stability, domestic peace and economic stability known as Pax Romana ("Roman Peace") which lasted beyond Augustus for another 150 years to 180 CE.
VIDEO: Augustus of Primaporta early 1st c. CE
Octavia: Augustus was given the title "Pontifex Maximus" (at 12 BCE) = High Priest, becoming the Empire's highest religious official as a political leader.
Augustus was a careful planner, inspired leader, had great administrative skill which allowed him to conquering and maintain an enormous empire.
Our own system of law, our governmental and administrative structures, our civil engineering and architecture reflect the contributions of Augustus.
Augustus built widely making city life comfortable and attractive for its citizens. Having centralized legal and administrative buildings = forums and basilicas, recreational facilities (stadiums), temples, theatre, markets, public baths, middle class housing and even entire new towns outside of Rome. They built roadways and bridges, some of the Roman bridges are still in use today! They also created lead pipe plumbing for urban dwellers which was an enormous accomplishment then! Just think about it...
p. 172
Art in the Age of Augustus
New Roman form of idealism that was grounded in an individualized appearance of the everyday, with a revival of Greek Classical ideals : adding mythological imagery, historical events. The sculptures, in particular narrated completed stories of the Roman Empire's psyche.
The Romans enriched portraiture (official figures and private folks), recorded contemporary historical events in the form of public monuments. Sculptural forms were rich in propagandistic attitudes to the Empire and its leaders to express their authority and how they want to be seen by their audience posthumously. Art forms seemed to be a synthesis of The Classical style: combining Greek's Golden Age with the historical references and identifiable figures of Augustus and the empire.
 |
| Ara Pacis Augustae - Altar of Augustan Peace Rome, 13 BCE - 9 CE, marble |
Rome 13BCE - 9 CE
Is a an architectural monument that celebrates the Roman rule in Gaul and Hispanic following three years of war.
It is an enclosure surrounding an open air alter that looks like a Greek temple in some respects.
VIDEO: Ara Pacis Augustae
Reliefs of political propaganda carved in marble unite religion with politics, show portraiture and allegory of mythical history of Rome. The portraits are of Augustus' imperial family. The monument unifies the public life of the Empire with the private.
 |
| Imperial Processional with members of Augustus' family |
Reliefs also reveal Greek allegory
Note the "walking cross" formed from the Greek Key
Augustus dies in 14 CE and Roman Senate is succeeded by his stepson, Tiberius (ruled 14 - 37 CE)
Process of making a cameo.
Onyx or sea shell, other semi precious stones.
VIDEO: Carving a Cameo: BAD SOUND!
p. 176
Roman Cities and Home
Romans loved to have contact with the natural world.
The establishment of the middle class enjoyed their courtyards and gardens. The wealthy had rural estates, the Roman emperors had country villas.
Wealthy Romans commissioned artists to paint landscapes on the interior walls - frescoes.
Cities were planned and built on a grid structure, like the Etruscans.
Pompeii was a thriving center of 10,000 - 20,000 inhabitants.
In 79 CE Mount Vesuvius erupted burying the city under more than 20' of ash, preserving it until the beginning of the 18th century when excavation began by archeologists.
Wealthy city dwellers had their homes here with enclosed gardens and often fasted shops on the street. They emphasized the interior more than the exterior of their domestic life.
 |
| Peristyle open air court yard |
People entered the home off the street and stepped into an atrium that had an impluvium (a pool with running water and/or rainwater). Off the atrium was the office for the household called the tablinum, where the head of the household. Portrait busts may be found in these two areas.
Private rooms; dining, sitting rooms and bedrooms (cubical), servant areas were arranged around the atrium. The peristyle or courtyard was often turned into an outdoor living room with fountains and gardens.
 |
| Peristyle open air court yard with impluvium |
Wall painting in Pompeii
Interior walls brought the outside in, in a controlled and idealized way. Some artists used mosaic (broken pieces of small glass and ceramic tile forming patterns and images).
Pigment was added to water-based solution of lime and soap, sometimes with a little bees' wax. Thus, allowing for shine to be established from the walls once dried and buffed with a soft cloth.
Pompeii Wall painting in the Villa of Livia
Romans delighted in their close observation of the natural world, but as well as their knowledge and life of mythology.
The walls of Pompeii show this exquisitely.
p. 183
Expanding Illusionary Space
Use of intuitive perspective = artists who have a general impression of real space beyond the wall. They were highly painted in the interior walls of Pompeii as murals.
The beginnings of linear perspective happen here with two point perspective - walls of the garden around the tree.
Villas at Primaporta illustrate on the walls a sense of deep space through murals.
VIDEO: Painted Garden Vista, Villa of Livia at Primaporta
Atmospheric perspective another spatial illusionary tool, where the artist depicts deep space as being less in focus and detail than the foreground.
Pompeii Wall painting
p. 183
Roman Realism in Still Life and Portraiture details
Genre scenes - scenes depicting everyday activities and still life
Double portrait of husband and wife from Pompeii 1st c. CE
The couple look out at us into the room, instead of a scene beyond the architectural wall.
Pigment with bees' wax on wall
Woman holds a stylus and man holds a roll of writing, both are literate. Style of painting depicts amazing details, for instance look at the high light on the nose and shadowing.
p. 185
The ARCH OF TITUS (above)
when Domitian assumed the throne in 81 CE, he commissioned a triumphal arch way to honor the capture of Jerusalem in 70 CE by his brother, Titus.
It is a free-standing gateway, 50 feet tall that served as a base for a now lost bronze statue of the Titus in four-horse chariots. Made of concrete and marble.
Wowza! Now that's enormous!!
 |
| Arch of Titus |
Reliefs depict procession in Rome, the capture of the Temple of Jerusalem and all the treasures that were carried off!
AMPHITEATER p. 186
Roman were huge sports fans. Flavian emperors catered to their taste by building wonderful facilities. The Flavain Amphitheater is Rome's greatest arena that began construction in 70 CE completed by Titus in 80 CE.
Vaulting - Romans became experts in devising methods of covering open spaces.
Barrel vault, constructed like the Roman Arch. It is a series of arches that are connected.
Groin Arch - when two archways intersect. Weight and outward thrust are concentrated on the four corner piers. Only the piers require buttressing for extra support.
Dome - perfected by the Romans. The rim of the dome is supported on a circular wall (the Pantheon for instance) and sometimes a circular opening at the top for emission of light and air. This opening is called the oculus (eye).
 |
| Pantheon Rome c. 110-128 CE |
Oculus of the Pantheon
 |
| Solomon R. Guggenheim. NYC. Frank Lloyd Wright
Your further notes need to be thorough on
- Mosaics
- Imperial portraits as objects of propaganda
- Funerary sculpture
- The Basilica at Trier
- Constantine the Great
- Roman Art after Constantine
Refer back to Chapter 6 p. 205 235 CE assassination of last Several emperor, Rome is thrown into anarchy that lasted 50 years 286 CE Diocletian divided the empire into two parts ruled by two Diocletians named "Augustus" 293 CE decided the territory should be "ruled by four" also known as tetrarchy, here each Augustus held the title of Caesar, Roman Empire now ruled by four individuals  Neoplatonic aesthetics of idealized abstraction was promoted by Plotinus, a third century CE philosopher who was widely read in the the late Roman world. The new geometric abstraction shows a shift in concept that was militaristic, severe and abstract, rather than "suave, slick, and classicizing." The tetrarchs ruled the empire from the following administrative headquarters: Milan, Italy Trier, Germany Thessaloniki, Greece Nicomedia, Turkey Enormous architecture was created to house government and military in the new capital cities. Constantius Chorus (Caesar, r. 293-305 CE) and his son Constantine (305-337 CE) fortified the walls of the cities. Augustus (305-306 CE) They built a huge audience hall which later was used as a Christian church   p. 206 Audience Hall of Constantius Chorus = Basilica todayThe Basilica's large scale illustrated the aesthetic that was large in size, simple and plan and no-nonsense Constantine the Great (305 CE He emerged victorious in 312 CE defeating Maxentius (son of Maximian) in Rome. According to Christian tradition, "Constantine had a vision the night before the battle in which he saw a flaming cross in the sky and heard these words: "In this sign you shall conquer."" The next morning he ordered that his army's shields be inscribed with the XP (chi rho in Latin)  
The labarum (Greek: λάβαρον) was a vexillum (military standard) that displayed the "Chi-Rho" symbol ☧, a christogram formed from the first two Greek letters of the word "Christ" (Greek: ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ, or Χριστός) — Chi (χ) and Rho (ρ). It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great.
Following his triumph win of the Battle of the Milvian Bridge at the entrance of Rome, Constantine the Great showed his gratitude by ending the persecution of Christians and recognized Christianity as a lawful religion. He may have been influenced by his mother Helena who was a devout Christian. By 313 CE issued the Edict of Milan, a model of religious tolerance among all.
Constantine is the Pontifex Maximus of Rome, thus is the religious leader of the country.
He also reaffirmed his devotion to the military's favorite god, Mithras, and to the Invincible Sun, Sol Invictus
In 324 CE Constantine defeated his last rival, Licinius, and ruled Italy as sole ruler until his death in
337 CE.
  
p. 208
The Arch of Constantine, Rome, the Senate erects the triumphal arch
In scale, the Arch of Titus we saw earlier is dwarfed
"The the Emperor Constantine from the Senate and the Roman People. Since through divine inspiration and great wisdom he has delivered the state from the tyrant and his party by his army and noble arms, we dedicate this arch, decorated with triumphal insignia."
Reliefs were made to narrate the story of Constantine's victory and symbolize his power
The sculptors recycled earlier sculpture - upstart, panels are taken from an earlier monument celebrating Marcus Aurelius over the Germans in 174 CE.
Tondo = a circular relief compositions take from a monument dedicated to Hadrian. Tondi = plural circular reliefs
p.210
Basilica Nova
Built to have multiple functions: administrative building of the imperial government, and provided an "over-the-top" setting for the emperor when he appeared to speak
Groin vaults, side aisles were covered with lower barrel vaults that acted as buttresses (projecting supports)
Roman Art after Constantine
Constantine baptized at his deathbed in 337, he brought Christianity into Rome as the official religion by the end of the fourth century CE. Non-Christians had now become targets in Rome.
Not all Romans converted, some remained polytheists (pagans)
*Read about the archeological finding in 1942 by a farmer plowing his field.
The ivory diptych = a pair of panels attached by hinges
triptych = a group of three panels attached by hinges of some kind
p. 213
The Priestess of Bacchus, c. 390 - 401 CE served as a type of an on-going writing tablet.
The interior was filled with wax, and with a stylus messages could be written into its soft material.
The receiver of the message would read it, smooth out the wax, and re-inscribe it with a new message that was returned to the originator by servant. An ancient form of "texting."
Here, she wears a wreath of ivy, dedicated to the god Bacchus on her head, like earlier officials before her to show her devotion to that god.
Classical subject matter remained attractive to artists as well as their patrons. Christian symbols mixed with polytheist gods and goddesses. Both stories remained in the secular realm in the late Roman period.
In the East, Classical traditions and styles were cultivated to influence Byzantine art....
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